PIPING ENGINEERING

Pipes are the most delicate components in any process plant. They are also the most busy entities. They are subjected to almost all kinds of loads, intentional or unintentional. It is very important to take note of all potential loads that a piping system would encounter during operation as well as during other stages in the life cycle of a process plant. Ignoring any such load while designing, erecting, hydro testing,start-up, shutdown, normal operation, maintenance etc. can lead to inadequate design and engineering of a piping system. The system may fail on the first occurrence of this overlooked load. Failure of a piping system may ixigger a ~ominoef fect and cause a major disaster. This is the lesson from the infamous Flixborough disaster that everybody having anything to do with design, engineering, maintenance, operation etc. of a piping system must learn. It is not sufficient to do 99 right things and 1 wrong thing while designing a piping system. The end result would be disastrous. One must score a perfect 100 in piping system design.



Codes, Standards and Practices
1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF PIPING TECHNOLOGY
The art of design and construction of piping systems and pipelines dates back to the earliest civilizations. Its progress reflects the steady evolution of cultures around the world: the needs of developing agricultures, the growth of cities, the industrial revolution and the use of steam power, the discovery and use of oil, the improvements in steel making and welding technology, the discovery and use of plastics, the fast growth of the chemical and power industries, and the increasing need for reliable water, oil and gas pipelines.

Mesopotamia
In the valley formed by the Tigris and Euphrates (present day Iraq), between 3000 BC and 2000 BC, rose the first city-states of Ur, Uruk and Babylon. In this land, which the Greeks called Mesopotamia (“between two rivers”), man established irrigated agriculture on a grander scale than ever seen before. Networks of irrigation channels were fed by river water. At the same time, aqueducts carried potable water from springs through miles of desert. To reduce losses by evaporation, the aqueducts were partly covered or run underground. Within cities, water was distributed in cylindrical pipes made of baked clay.

China
At about the same time, and half a world away, the Chinese supplied water to their villages in bamboo pipes and used wooden plug valves to control flow. Bamboo wrapped with wax was also used to carry natural gas, while large water pipe conduits were made of hollow wood logs.

Indus Valley
As early as 2500 BC, the sophistication of indoor plumbing and wastewater drainage was characteristic of the Indus Valley cities (present day Pakistan and north western India). Houses in Harrapa and Mohenjo-Darro made use of short earthenware pipes placed backto- back to channel water. Interestingly, these short pipes appear to have been produced in standard sizes: approximately 1 ft long and 4” in diameter. Drainage ran in street trenches covered with flat rectangular stone slabs.

Egypt
In ancient Egypt, 3000 BC, canals were used to divert the Nile waters and irrigate fields. Drinking water was obtained directly from wells or by boiling river water. There are few reports of the use of pipes. In one instance, approximately 400 yards of copper pipes were found in the temple of Sahuri, assembled from 16” long sections made by hammering
1/16” thick sheets of copper into cylinders.

Crete
On the island of Crete, between 2000 BC and 1500 BC, the Minoans had installed a clever water supply to the palace of Knossos (famous for the legend of the Minotaur, part man part bull, who haunted its labyrinths). Earthenware pipes carried water from nearby mountains to the palace. The pipes were slightly conical in shape, the narrow end of one
pipe section fitting into the large end of the next section
.
Greece
The Greeks, 1600 BC to 300 BC, used earthenware, stone, bronze and lead pipes. In many cases one end of the pipe section was tapered, while the opposite end was expanded, the tapered end of one pipe fit into the expanded end of the next section, much like today’s bell and spigot joints.
Greek blacksmiths “welded” pieces of iron by hammering red-hot ends together.
There is however no evidence that this type of welding was used to fabricate pipe.Whatever the fabrication technique, the pipe joints must have been reliable since the hydraulic profile of one pipeline implies that static pressure due to differences in elevation must heave reached up to 300 psi at low points.

Rome
The Romans deserve special mention in the field of piping engineering. Some of their achievements in water works remained unmatched until modern times. The Roma
imperial period between 400 BC and 150 AD saw the building of over 200 stone aqueducts to carry waters to three separate outlets: public baths, city fountains and a few private homes. The fountains played the role of surge tanks in case of water hammer due to sudden changes in flow. The water supply of Rome itself is reported to have been
around 300 gallons per person, a high figure, even by today’s standards.
The control of Rome’s water supply was entrusted to a commissioner, helped by technical consultants and an administrative staff. Countless slaves acted as masons, repairmen, and even quality inspectors. The Romans were proud of their waterworks. The Roman water commissioner Frontinus noted “With such an array of indispensable structures carrying so many waters, compare if you will the idle pyramids or the useless, though famous, works of Greeks”.
A variety of pipe materials were used: lead, wood with iron collars at joints, earthenwear, bronze, and, in the more prestigious villas, silver. Lead pipes were fabricated by folding flat strips into conduits of circular, oblong or even triangular cross sections. The longitudinal seams were then soldered. The Romans perfected mixtures of cement or
Piping and pipeline engineering 2 mortar to line the inside of pipelines. Another sealing technique consisted in throwing
wood ash into the water to clog cracks and stop leaks.
The size of pipes was designated by the width of the initial strip, measured in “fingers”. Pipes and inlet orifices to control flow were carefully inspected… and stamped. Rome’s water regulations were clear: “none but stamped pipes must be set in place”. For example, a section of lead pipe clearly shows the letters “therma triani” stamped in relief.

Middle Ages
In Western civilization, the fall of Rome reversed the advances achieved in the science
and art of piping and waterworks. Except for works by the Moors, waterworks were
largely ignored in middle age Europe. Towns reverted back to wells, springs and rivers
for water. As for wastewater, it was simply disposed into the streets. The exceptions
appeared to have been certain abbeys that had well maintained metallic water and
earthenware sewer networks. An example of color-coded flow diagram, a predecessor to
modern day P&ID’s (piping and instrumentation diagrams), has survived to our days.
Hollowed trees were used to convey water; they were made watertight by a variety of
means such as the use of sealant made of mutton fat mixed with crushed bricks.
Renaissance
Interestingly, with the invention of the printing press, one of the first books printed in the
fifteenth century was Frontinus’ Roman treatise on waterworks. During that period of
renewal, several aqueducts were repaired and placed back in service. At the same time,
metallurgy had reached a point where cast iron pipe could be produced.
The Age of Enlightenment
The waterworks of 17th and 18th century Europe are marked by advancements in pumping
technology and the expanded use of cast iron pipe. Jealous of his minister’s palace, the
French “Sun King” Louis XIV ordered the building of 1400 fountains for his palace at
Versailles. But the palace was situated on high grounds and the water had to be pumped
uphill. The king entrusted the famous scientist Mariotte (1620–1684) to solve this
problem. With a limitless budget, but on a tight schedule, Mariotte experimented with a
number of pipe materials, including glass, before selecting cast iron and, in the process,
perfecting the theory of strength of beams in bending. In England of the mid-18th century,
the London Bridge Waterworks Company reported over 54,000 yards of wooden pipe
and 1,800 yards of cast iron.
The Industrial Revolution
In the 19th century, piping technology would develop at an accelerated pace. The catalysts
of this growth were the emerging oil industry, the distribution of natural gas and the
increasing need for steam and water. Wood was still in use, but lap-jointed wrought iron,
Codes, standards and practices 3
riveted or flanged, was taking hold. The pipe flange was perfected by S.R.Dresser in the
1880’s.
Gas lighting was introduced in London in 1807, with pipelines made from musket
barrels available in great numbers at the end of the Napoleonic wars. In the U.S., the first
gas transmission line was installed in Baltimore in 1816.
In 1825, the Englishman Cornelius Whitehouse developed a method for fabricating
pipe in one furnace pass from hot strips formed through a die or bell. In the United States,
the first pipe furnace was built in 1830, in Philadelphia. Between 1850 and 1860, the
Bessemer process made quality steel available in large quantities, and triggered the
production of pipe by cold bending of sheet metal and riveting the seams.
When, in Pennsylvania, E.L.Drake discovered oil in 1859, it was transported by
wagons. In 1865, S.Van Syckel successfully piped oil over 6 miles from oil field to
loading station. His pipeline consisted of 2” diameter, 15 ft long wrought iron lap welded
pipe sections. This breakthrough was understandably opposed by the railway companies
who prohibited pipelines from crossing their tracks. “Pipeline walkers” were hired by the
oil companies to guard against sabotage and give early warning of leaks, an early version
of today’s air patrols and “in-service inspection” programs.
Towards the end of the 19th century seamless pipe made its appearance, having
evolved from the manufacture of tubular bicycle frames, an industry fast growing at the
time. In the second half of the 19th century, the use of steam was growing in transport
(locomotives and steam boats), in city heating (through underground steam pipelines),
and in industry. An 1883 “Note Relating to Water-Hammer in Steam Pipes” (reproduced
in part in Chapter 9) shows how well engineers understood the flow of steam in pipes.
At the threshold of the 20th century, piping technology was poised for unprecedented
growth due to improvements in welding, in materials and in pumping. At the same time,
standardization of materials and designs became a financial and safety necessity, and
industries came to rely more on codes and standards, while national engineering societies
and industry institutes became an important source of innovation and improvements.
Time Line
Key milestones in the development of piping and pipeline technologies are listed in Table
1-1.
Table 1-1 Time Line of Piping Technology
3000 BC Mesopotamia: Baked clay pipe used for water distribution.
3000 BC China: Bamboo pipes carry water or gas.
3000 BC Egypt: copper sheets hammered into cylinders used as water pipes.
2500 BC Indus valley: earthenware pipe of standard size for indoor plumbing.
2000 BC Crete: Tapered pipes made of earth, bronze and lead.
1000 BC Greece: Blacksmiths “weld” by hammering red hot metals together.
1000 BC Greece: Hydraulic profile points to pipes carrying 300 psi.
400 BC Rome: Lead, wood with iron collars, earthenware used to carry water.
Piping and pipeline engineering 4
400 BC Rome: Cylindrical, oblong and triangular pipe cross-sections used.
400 BC Rome: Only stamped pipes used in waterworks.
400 BC Rome: Pipe sizes standardized and labeled by width of initial strip.
400 BC Romans favorably compare their waterworks to “idle” pyramids.
500 The Middle Ages…
1601 Porta (Italy) designs a steam drum mounted atop a furnace.
1650 Mariotte designs piping system for 1400 fountains at Versailles.
1652 First U.S. water works (Boston).
1707 Papin (France) designs a steam engine counterweight relief device.
1738 Bernoulli publishes “Hydrodynamica”.
1774 James Watt (England) operates a steam engine, 18” in diameter.
1808 First steam boat, New York to Albany, 150 psi steam, 4 mph.
1812 Welding of firearm barrels (UK).
1815 Coal gas used to light London streets.
1815 Discarded musket barrels used as gas distribution pipe (UK).
1817 Philadelphia city council recommends safety valves on ship boilers.
1824 Patent for longitudinally welded pipe (UK).
1825 Fabrication of seamless tube (UK).
1830 Franklin Institute investigates steam boiler explosions.
1833 Steamboat 6-month inspections put into US law.
1836 First US wrought iron pipe mill (Philadelphia).
1850 Wöhler studies the endurance limit of metals.
1852 Steamboat act rules design and construction of boilers.
1854 Hartford steam boiler explosion. Jury calls for boiler regulation.
1859 First commercial oil well produces 20 barrels/day, Pennsylvania.
1862 First oil pipeline, 1000-ft long operates by gravity, Pennsylvania.
1862 Standard pipe thread dimensions.
1863 Second oil pipeline, 2” dia. cast iron, 2.5 miles long, pumped flow.
1864 Connecticut appoints steam boiler inspectors.
1865 Steamship Sultana explodes, killing 1500 returning prisoners of war.
1865 Oil transport pipeline 6 miles, 2” lap-welded iron pipe, tested 900 psi.
1866 Oil well gathering line, 2” pipe 4 miles.
Codes, standards and practices 5
1867 First insurance policy for boilers.
1869 Development of celluloid plastic.
1877 Forge welding of iron boiler
1879 Oil pipeline, 109 miles, 6” diameter, Pennsylvania.
1880 Formation of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
1881 Formation of the American Water Works Institute.
1884 Standard Methods for Steam Boiler Trials.
1885 Henry Clay Mine disaster, 27 boilers explode and kill hundreds.
1885 Bauschinger measures small strains with mirror extensometer.
1886 Patent for Mannesman seamless pipe mill (Germany).
1886 Standard pipe and thread sizes recommended by ASME.
1886 Wood (1200 barrels) and wrought iron (15,000 b.) oil storage tanks.
1887 First patent for arc welding (England).
1887 Steel pipe, butt and lap welded (Wheeling, W.Va).
1889 Formation of American Steam Boilers Manufacturers Association.
1892 Arc welding used in locomotive factories.
1894 ASME adopts a standard flange template.
1895 Oil steel line pipe becomes available.
1896 NFPA founded.
1898 Burst tests of cast iron cylinders.
1901 A manufacturers’ standard is issued for flanges to 250 psi.
1901 Pipeline for batch refined oil products, Pennsylvania.
1903 Metallographic analysis of stages of fatigue failure.
1905 Steam explosion in a Brockton, Massachusetts, shoe factory, 58 dead.
1905 Charpy test developed to assess notch effects on toughness.
1906 Massachusetts forms a five-men Board of Boiler Rules.
1906 472 miles, 8” pipeline, threaded, Oklahoma to Texas.
1906 Beneficial effects of heat treatment discovered in Germany.
1908 Massachusetts enacts first boiler construction law.
1908 AWWA “Standard Specification” for cast iron pipe.
1908 First discovery of Middle Eastern oil (Persia).
1910 Manufacturers’ committee formed to design a line of flanged fittings.
Piping and pipeline engineering 6
1911 Ohio adopts Massachusetts’ law.
1911 Ten states and nineteen cities have boiler laws.
1911 First ASME committee for boilers and vessels specifications.
1911 Oxyacetylene welding replaces threads on gas pipeline.
1912 Lincoln Electric Institute introduces the welding machine to the U.S.
1912 Pipe screwing machine replaces “hand-tong gangs”.
1913 Standard Oil begins thermal cracking oil to get gasoline.
1914 ASME publishes Standard for Pipe Flanges, Fittings and Bolting.
1915 ASME I Rules for the Construction of Stationary Boilers, 114 pages.
1917 Pump manufacturers form the Hydraulic Institute.
1919 AWS American Welding Society formed.
1920 Oxyacetylene torch welding replaces threaded connections.
1920 Welded seam pipe starts to replace riveted seam pipe.
1921 Publication of ASME III Code for Boilers for Locomotives.
1921 Union Carbide hydrocarbon cracking plant.
1921 Committee B16 organized.
1923 Publication of ASME IV Heating Boilers.
1924 Issue of API standards.
1924 Publication of ASME II Materials.
1925 Commercial fabrication of arc welded pressure vessels.
1925 Publication of ASME VIII Pressure Vessels.
1926 Publication of ASME VII Care of Power Boilers.
1926 First meeting of ASME “Project B31” Sectional Committee.
1926 Geckeler (Germany) publishes vessel head design formulas.
1928 First edition of API 5L specification for pipelines.
1928 Publication of first American Standards Association B16 Standard.
1928 Work begins under B16 to standardize dimensions of valves.
1928 Electric arc welding of 40-ft sections of seamless oil line pipe.
1929 Sokolow (Russia) applies ultrasonic waves to measure wall thickness.
1930 Electric arc welding.
1930 Development of expanded line pipe, with increased yield.
1931 Fusion welding permitted as joining practice in the ASME Code.
1931 X-ray radiography introduced in the ASME Code, 4” thickness limit.
Codes, standards and practices 7
1931 ASME introduces weld porosity charts.
1931 Production of PVC pipe in Germany.
1932 Timoshenko publishes external pressure formulas.
1932 Discovery of oil in Bahrain.
1933 Imperial Chemical Industries develops polyethylene.
1934 Joint API-ASME Committee Unfired Pressure Vessels.
1935 Roark publishes stresses in cylinders under concentrated radial load.
1935 ASME B31 “Power, Gas and Air, Oil, District Heating”.
1935 Iron pipe sizes modified for steel, lower wall thickness, same weight.
1936 First publication of ANSI B36.10 carbon steel pipe sizes.
1937 Work begun to standardize welded fittings, today’s B16.9.
1938 Discovery of oil in Saudi Arabia.
1938 Dupont develops Teflon.
1939 Construction of 96-mile 24/26 in. Pto. La Cruz pipeline, Venezuela.
1940 Scale model tests used to design steam lines for flexibility.
1940 Submerged arc welding developed in shipyards.
1941 Welding and brazing qualification.
1941 First offshore oil well, Texas.
1942 ASME B31 “American Standard Code for Power Piping”.
1942 Molybdenum added to prevent graphitization of steam steel pipe.
1943 TD Williamson launches first steel pig to remove paraffin deposits.
1944 Vessel design safety factor changed from 5 to 4.
1945 Miner publishes “Cumulative Damage in Fatigue”.
1946 ASA standard for socket welded fittings, today’s B16.11.
1946 National Board Inspection Code.
1946 Vessel design safety factor returned to 5 at end of war.
1947 Angle beam ultrasonic waves used to inspect welds.
1947 First offshore platform out of sight of land.
1947 Products batching pipeline, Texas to Colorado.
1949 B36.19 standard sizes of stainless steel pipe, down to schedule 10S.
1950 Trans-Arabian pipeline 30/31 in. Saudi Arabia to Syria.
1951 First publication of standard gasket dimensions B16.21.
Piping and pipeline engineering 8
1951 Vessel design safety factor permanently returned to 4.
1952 B31.1.8 “Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems”.
1952 Glass reinforced plastic pipe comes into production.
1952 15 ft-lb adopted as an acceptable lower bound of impact toughness.
1952 Introduction of schedule 5S for stainless steel pipe in B36.19.
1953 Drop-weight test used as a measure of nil ductility transition.
1953 First edition of API 1104 for pipeline weld inspections.
1955 ASME B31 code splits into separate books.
1955 Markl’s thermal expansion formula introduced in B31.1.
1955 ASTM organizes group to write plastic pipe standards.
1956 Closed form solution for ship piping under dynamic load.
1956 Kellog publishes “Design of Piping Systems”.
1958 Advisory Committee on Nuclear Plant Piping.
1959 Publication of B31.3 “Petroleum Refinery Piping”.
1959 Publication of B31.4 “Oil Transportation Piping Systems”.
1961 Publication of ASME X Fiber Reinforced Plastic Vessels.
1961 Langer publishes design fatigue curves for vessels.
1962 Post-weld heat treatment introduced in the ASME code.
1962 Publication of B31.5 Refrigeration Piping.
1962 Publication of first ASME Code Case N-1 for Nuclear Piping.
1962 First commercial reeled-pipe vessel for laying subsea pipe.
1965 ASME III Locomotives code replaced by ASME III Nuclear Vessels.
1966 Publication of ASME B31.7 Nuclear Piping.
1967 ASA becomes US American Standards Institute USAS.
1967 Occasional loads appear in B31.1 with a 1.28 allowable.
1967 Fracture mechanics introduced in vessel design and failure analysis.
1968 Publication of 49CFR192 federal safety rules for pipelines.
1969 USAS becomes American National Standards Institute ANSI.
1969 Publication of B31.7 Code for Nuclear Piping.
1970 B31 Case 70 “Normal, Upset, Emergency and Faulted” conditions.
1970 Publication of ASME XI In-service Inspection Nuclear Components.
1970 Publication of ASME III Nuclear Components.
Codes, standards and practices 9
1970 Investigation of the strength of corroded pipe (later B31.G).
1971 B31.7 moved to ASME III.
1971 Publication of ASME V Non-Destructive Examination.
1971 Publication of ASME VI Care and Operation of Heating Boilers.
1973 Publication of rules to evaluate the strength of corroded pipelines.
1973 ASME Code Case 1606 introduces 2.4S allowable.
1974 B31.6 Chemical Plant Piping (not issued) to B31.3 (Code Case 49).
1977 Initial service of 48” North Slope oil pipeline, Alaska.
1982 ANS Committee B16 becomes ASME Committee.
1982 Publication of ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping.
1984 Creation of the Edison Welding Institute, Ohio.
1986 Publication of ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping.
1990 US interstate pipelines: 274,000+ miles gas, 168,000+ miles liquid.
1993 First use of API 5L X80 line pipe (Germany).
1995 NBIC expands scope to cover “pressure retaining items”.
1996 B31.3 “Chemical and Refinery” becomes “Process Piping”.
1996 Accountable pipeline safety act.
1999 Publication of ASME XII Transport Tanks.
2000 Publication of API 579 Fitness-for-Service.
2000 Pipelines integrity management plan introduced in 49CFR
2000 4,400 companies have ASME accreditation, 74% in U.S.-Canada.
1.2 NATIONAL CODES, STANDARDS AND GUIDES
In the United States, there are many organizations that develop and publish standards,
guides and rules of engineering practice. These organizations can be grouped into four
main categories [Leight].
(1) Professional societies, such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) or the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), publish design,
construction and maintenance standards and guides that reflect the state-of-the-art in their
profession. These standards may be imposed by federal, state or local law, in which case
they become codes. This is the case for example for Section I, Power Boilers, of the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, which is imposed by state law in most states in
the U.S. Other professional societies include the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers (AIChE), the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), the American
Piping and pipeline engineering 10
Concrete Institute (ACI), ASM International (formerly American Society for Metals), and
the Materials Technology Institute of the Chemical Process Industries (MTI).
(2) Trade associations that write standards to promote, perfect and explain the use of
products developed by their members, for example the Nickel Development Institute
(NiDI), the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), the American Petroleum Institute
(API), and the American Water Works Association (AWWA).
(3) Testing and certification organizations such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL),
Factory Mutual (FM) and the International Conference of Building Officials’ Evaluation
Services (ICBO ES), that independently test and certify equipment, components and
items.
(4) Standards developing organizations such as ASTM International (formerly the
American Society for Testing and Materials), whose primary purpose is the writing and
issue of standards to improve reliability, promote public health and commerce.
Following is a list of professional societies, trade associations, testing and certification
organizations, research institutes, regulatory bodies, and standards developing
organizations whose work relates to the design, fabrication, operation, maintenance,
repair and safety of pressure equipment, piping systems and their support structures.
AA —Aluminum Association, Washington, DC.
AASHTO —American Association of State Highway and Transp.
Off., DC.
ABMA —American Boiler Manufacturers Association, Arlington,
VA.
ACS —American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
ACI —American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI.
ACPA —American Concrete Pipe Association, Irving, TX.
AGA —American Gas Association, Arlington, VA.
AIChE —American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York.
AIPE —American Institute of Plant Engineers, Cincinnati, OH.
AISC —American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.
AISI —American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, DC.
ANSI —American National Standards Institute, New York, NY.
ANS —American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, IL.
API —American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
APFA —American Pipe Fittings Association, Springfield, VA.
AREA —American Railway Engineering Association,
Washington, DC.
ASCE —American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
ASHRAE —American Society of Heating, Refrig. and Air Cond.
Engrs, Atlanta.
ASME —American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
NY.
Codes, standards and practices 11
ASNT —American Society for Non-Destructive Testing,
Columbus, OH.
ASPE —American Society of Plumbing Engineers, Westlake,
CA.
ASQC —American Society for Quality Control, Milwaukee, WI.
ASTM International —West Conshohocken, PA.
AWS —American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
AWWA —American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
Batelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH.
BOCA —Building Officials & Code Admin. International,
Country Club Hills, IL.
CABO —Council of American Building Officials, Falls Church,
VA.
CMA —Chemical Manufacturers Association, Washington, DC.
CDA —Copper Development Association, Greenwich, CT.
CAGI —Compressed Air and Gas Institute, Cleveland, OH.
CGA —Compressed Gas Association, Arlington, VA.
CISPI —Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute, Chattanooga, TN.
Cryogenic Society of America, Oak Park, IL.
CSA —Construction Specifications Institute, Alexandria, VA.
DIRA —Ductile Iron Research Association, Birmingham, AL.
EEI —Edison Electric Institute, Washington, DC.
EJMA —Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association, Tarrytown,
NY.
EMC —Equipment Maintenance Council, Lewisville, TX.
EPRI —Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
EWI —Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, OH.
FIA —Forging Industry Association, Cleveland, OH.
FM —Factory Mutual, Norwood, MA.
HI —Hydraulic Institute, Parsippany, NJ.
IAMPO —International Assoc. of Mech. and Plumbing Off., South
Walnut, CA.
ICBO —International Conference of Building Officials, Whittier,
CA.
ICRA —International Compressors Remanufacturers Assoc.,
Kansas City, MO.
IEEE —Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, New
York, NY.
Institute of Industrial Engineers, Atlanta, GA.
ISA —Instrument Society of America, Research Triangle, NC.
Piping and pipeline engineering 12
MCA —Manufacturing Chemical Association, Washington, DC.
MSS —Manufacturers Stand. Society of Valves and Fittings
Industry, Vienna, VA.
NACE —National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston,
TX.
National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors,
Columbus, OH.
National Certified Pipe Welding Bureau, Bethesda, MD.
National Corrugated Steel Pipe Association, Washington,
DC.
NCPI —National Clay Pipe Institute, Lake Geneva, WI.
NEMA —National Electrical Manufacturers Association,
Washington, DC.
NFPA —National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA.
NFSA —National Fire Sprinklers Association, Patterson, NY.
NiDI —Nickel Development Institute, Toronto, Canada.
NIST —National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD.
NRC —Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC.
NTIAC —Nondestructive Testing Information Analysis Center,
Austin, TX.
OSHA —Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
Washington, DC.
PEI —Petroleum Equipment Institute, Tulsa, OK.
PFI —Pipe Fabricators Institute, Springdale, PA.
PLCA —Pipe Line Contractors Association, Dallas, TX.
PPFA —Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association, Glen Ellyn, IL.
PMI —Plumbing Manufacturers Institute, Glen Ellyn, IL.
PPI —Plastics Pipe Institute, Washington, DC.
RETA —Refrigeration Engineers and Technicians Association,
Chicago, IL.
RRF —Refrigeration Research Foundation, North Bethesda,
MD.
SBCCI —Southern Building Code Congress International,
Birmingham, AL.
SES —Standards Engineering Society, Dayton, OH.
SFPE —Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Boston, MA.
SME —Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, MI.
SPE —Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, TX.
SPE —Society of Plastics Engineers, Fairfield, CT.
Codes, standards and practices 13
SSFI —Scaffolding, Shoring and Forming Institute, Cleveland,
OH.
SSPC —Steel Structures Painting Council, Pittsburgh, PA.
SMACNA —Sheet Metal and Air Cond’g. Contr. National Assoc.,
Merrifield, VA.
STI —Steel Tank Institute, Northbrook, IL.
SWRI —Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX.
TEMA —Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association,
Tarrytown, NY.
TIMA —Thermal Insulation Manufacturers Association, Mt.
Kisco, NY.
TWI —The Welding Institute, Cambridge, UK.
UL —Underwriters Laboratories, Northbrook, IL.
UNI —Uni-Bell PVC Pipe Association, Dallas, TX.
VMAA —Valve Manufacturers Association of America,
Washington, DC.
Vibration Institute, Willowbrook, IL.
Zinc Institute, New York, NY.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a federation of standards writing
bodies, government agencies, companies and consumers that coordinates the activities of
standard writing organizations, and offers accreditation to standards writing organizations
and product certifiers, including regular audits. As part of the accreditation process,
ANSI requires standards writing organizations to follow a consensus process by which
new standards or revisions are reviewed and approved by majority of the technical
standards writing body (some standards committees have adopted a 2/3 rather than a 51%
majority rule), a supervisory board (such as the ASME Boards listed in section 1.7), the
public, and a final review by the ANSI Board of Standards Review. The standards writing
rules provide for an appeals process at various levels, including appeal to ANSI itself.
American national standards are normally reaffirmed or revised every five years. ANSI
may administratively withdraw a standard that has not been reaffirmed or revised within
ten years. ANSI is also the U.S. representative on the International Standards
Organization (ISO).
At times, government agencies also write their own standards. However, starting in the
1990’s, there has been a concerted effort by U.S. federal departments and agencies to use
national consensus standards where they exist. This effort was formalized in the National
Technology Transfer and Advancement Act of 1995, Public Law 104–113, section 12.
1.3 PIPING AND PIPELINE CODES
In the United States, the “family” of documents that govern the design and construction
of pressure piping is the ASME B31 pressure piping code. The term “pressure piping”
refers to piping systems or pipelines operating at or above 15 psig, one atmosphere above
Piping and pipeline engineering 14
the atmospheric pressure. Piping systems operating below atmospheric pressure, all the
way down to vacuum, are also included in the scope of several ASME B31 sections. The
ASME B31 code consists of several “sections”, each covered in a separate “book”. The
individual code sections are numbered ASME B31.X, and each separate book is
sometimes referred to as a “code”. “B31” is simply a sequence number assigned to the
project kicked-off in 1927 to develop pipe design rules. And the number “.1”, “.3”, etc.
that follows “B31” reflected initially the original chapter numbers of ASME B31, which
have now evolved into separate code books. These are:
ASME B31.1 Power Piping: fossil fueled power plant, nuclear powered plant with a
construction permit pre-dating 1969 (B31.7 for 1969–1971, and ASME III post-1971).
ASME B31.2 Fuel Gas Piping (obsolete).
ASME B31.3 Process Piping: hydrocarbons and others. Hydrocarbons includes
refining and petrochemicals. Others includes chemical process, making of chemical
products, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, dye and colorings, food processing,
laboratories, offshore platform separation of oil and gas, etc.
ASME B31.4 Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping: upstream liquid gathering lines
and tank farms, downstream transport and distribution of hazardous liquids (refined
products, liquid fuels, carbon dioxide).
ASME B31.5 Refrigeration Piping: heating ventilation an air conditioning in industrial
applications.
ASME B31.6 Chemical Plant Piping (transferred to B31.3)
ASME B31.7 Nuclear Power Plant Piping (transferred to ASME III)
ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping: upstream gathering lines,
onshore and offshore, downstream transport pipelines and distribution piping.
ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping: low pressure steam and water distribution.
ASME B31.10 Cryogenic Piping (transferred to B31.3)
ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping: mining, slurries, suspended solids
transport, etc.
There are also two separate ASME B31 publications: ASME B31G Manual for
Determining the Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipe, and ASME B31.8S Managing
System Integrity of Gas Pipelines
The code for design and construction of nuclear power plant piping systems is the
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, while their maintenance, in-service
inspection and repair is covered in Section XI.
Waterworks codes cover transport, treatment and distribution of fresh water, and
collection, treatment and effluent of used water. They include AWWA C151 (ductile
iron), AWWA C200 series and M11 (steel), AWWA C300 series and M9 (concrete),
AWWA C900 series and M23 (plastics), AWWA M45 (fiberglass), etc.
Fire protection codes cover transport and distribution of water for fire fighting, and
sprinkler systems (National Fire Protection codes).
Building plumbing codes apply to commercial and private distribution and use of
water and effluents (International Building Code).
Codes, standards and practices 15
1.4 SCOPE OF ASME B31 CODES
Each ASME B31 Code section is published as a separate book. Some code sections apply
to a specific industry, for example in its current scope ASME B31.1 applies to power
plants or steam producing plants fired by fossil fuels (non-nuclear). ASME B31.4 applies
to liquid hydrocarbon transportation pipelines, associated tank farms and terminals.
ASME B31.8 applies to gas and two phase gathering lines, separators, transmission
pipelines and associated compressors, and gas distribution piping. ASME B31.9 applies
to building services, typically air and steam. On the other hand, ASME B31.3 is a code of
very broad application, including chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, utilities in
process plants, support systems in pipeline terminals and pumping stations, process of
radioactive or toxic materials, food and drug industry, paper mills, etc. Under certain
conditions, an ASME B31 code may permit the owner to exclude some systems from
code scope. In some cases such exclusions may however not be permitted under federal,
state or local regulations.
The ASME B31 codes provide minimum requirements. They do not replace
competence and experience. The owner, or the contractor, is expected to apply his or her
knowledge to supplement the code requirements for a particular application. For
example, when systems operate at temperatures that are atypically low or high, the owner
or the designer may need to impose additional design and fabrication requirements. This
is the case, for example, for sections of gas or oil pipelines at temperatures below −20°F
or above 250°F.
1.5 BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE
In the United States, the family of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel codes, ASME
B&PV, governs the design and construction of pressure vessels. The term pressure vessel
refers to vessels operating at or above 15 psig, one atmosphere above the atmospheric
pressure, or subject to external pressure. In addition to design and construction, the
ASME B&PV codes also address material specifications and properties (ASME B&PV
II), examination and leak testing techniques (ASME B&PV V), and maintenance and
repair (ASME B&PV VI, VII, XI). Components designed and fabricated according to the
ASME B&PV Code are stamped to indicate compliance. Following is a partial
description of scope of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code sections.
The ASME B&PV Code, Section I “Power Boilers”, applies to boilers in which steam
or other vapor is generated at a pressure of more than 15 psig; high-temperature water
boilers intended for operation at pressures exceeding 160 psig and/or temperatures
exceeding 250°F. Components that comply with ASME B&PV Section I are stamped
S=boiler, PP=pressure piping, E=electric boilers, M=miniature boilers, V=boiler safety
valve.
The ASME B&PV Code, Section II “Materials” compiles the material specifications
and material properties for materials used in the construction of ASME components. If a
material is listed in ASME Section II, its ASTM specification number is preceded by the
letter “S”. For example the designation SA106 applies to an ASTM A106 pipe material
Piping and pipeline engineering 16
“listed” in ASME Section II, permitted for use in the construction of ASME boilers and
pressure vessels.
The ASME B&PV Code, Section III Division 1 applies to safety related components
of nuclear power plants: vessels, piping, tanks, pumps and valves. The applicable stamps
are: N for vessels, NP for piping, and NPT for components. The non-nuclear piping, or
“balance of plant piping” is typically designed and fabricated to ASME B31.1. Piping
systems in earlier nuclear power plants, licensed before 1971, are designed and
constructed to ASME B31.1 or B31.7. ASME III Division 2 applies to the containment
building of a nuclear power plant, and Division 3 applies to shipping containers for
nuclear materials.
The ASME B&PV Code, Section IV Heating Boilers applies to hot water supply
boilers, with the following services: steam boilers for operation at pressures not
exceeding 15 psi; hot water heating boilers and hot water supply boilers for operating at
pressures not exceeding 160 psi or temperatures not exceeding 250°F. Water heaters are
exempted when their heat input is less than 200,000 But/hr, and their water temperature is
less than 210°F, and their water capacity is less than 120 gal.
The ASME B&PV Code, Section V addresses the various techniques for nondestructive
examinations (NDE) and testing (NDT), such as visual examinations, liquid
penetrant testing, magnetic particles testing, radiography, ultrasonic inspections, pressure
testing (hydrostatic or pneumatic), and leak testing.
The ASME B&PV Code, Section VI contains the “Recommended Rules for the Care
and Operation of Heating Boilers”, while Section VII contains the “Recommended
Guidelines for the Care of Power Boilers”.
The ASME B&PV Code, Section VIII “Pressure Vessels” addresses the design and
fabrication of “unfired” pressure vessels (as opposed to “fired” boilers). These vessels are
stamped “U” to signify “unfired”. The following classes of vessels are exempted from the
scope of Section VIII Division 1: those within the scope of other sections (for example a
Section X fiberglass vessel); fired process tubular heaters; pressure containers which are
part of components of rotating or reciprocating mechanical devices (for example pump or
compressor casings); piping systems, pipelines, and their components (for example a
valve body). Also excluded from the scope of Section VIII are vessels for containing
water under pressure, up to 300 psi, 210°F, and 200,000 Btu/hr, or 120 gal; vessels
having an internal or external operating pressure not exceeding 15 psi, with no limitation
on size; vessels having an inside diameter, width, height, or cross section diagonal not
exceeding 6 in., with no limitation on length of vessel or pressure; and pressure vessels
for human occupancy.
Division 2 of ASME VIII addresses the design and construction of unfired pressure
vessels, but it relies on more detailed analyses and more fabrication constraints than
Division 1, while allowing a lower safety factor. Division 3 of ASME VIII addresses
thick vessels for high-pressure service. The applicable stamps for ASME B&PV Code
Section VIII are: U=Div.1 pressure vessel, U2=Div.2 pressure vessel, U3=Div.3,
UM=miniature vessel and UV=safety valves
The ASME B&PV Code, Section IX addresses “Welding and Brazing Qualification”,
including welder and weld procedure qualification.
The ASME B&PV Code, Section X addresses the design and fabrication of fiber
reinforced pressure vessels for general service. It sets minimum requirements for the
Codes, standards and practices 17
materials of fabrication; test procedures for mechanical properties of laminates, and
design rules.
The ASME B&PV Code, Section XI “Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear
Power Plants” applies to periodic inspections of nuclear power plant components as well
as to the evaluation of degraded conditions, and their repair.
The ASME B&PV Code, Section XII is a recent document that covers the design and
fabrication of transport pressure vessels.
An ASME Post Construction Code is under development that will include rules and
guidance for inspection planning of pressure equipment, methods for flaw assessment,
and techniques for repair and testing of pressure equipment.
1.6 FEDERAL AND STATE LAWS
In the United States, in most cases, a national standard is imposed as a code by federal,
state or local laws. Federal laws that address pressure vessels and piping systems include:
10 CFR Energy, Part 50 Domestic Licensing of Production and Utilization Facilities
(regulatory requirements for nuclear power plants structures, systems and components,
applicability of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code).
29 CFR Labor, Part 1910 Occupational Safety and Health Standards (mechanical
integrity, inspection and testing, management of change, certification of coded vessels,
ASME compliance for air receivers, lockout and tagout of energy sources, hot tap).
40 CFR Protection of Environment, Part 264 Standards for Owners and Operators of
Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities (tank systems, leak
tightness, overpressure protection, double isolation).
49 CFR Transportation, Part 192 Transportation of Natural Gas and Other Gas by
Pipeline: Minimum Federal Safety (gas pipelines, ASME B31.8). Part 193 Liquefied
Natural Gas Facilities: Federal Safety Standards. Part 194 Response Plans for Onshore
Oil Pipelines. Part 195 Transportation of Hazardous Liquids Pipelines (liquid pipelines,
ASME B31.4).
State laws addressing the application of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code are
summarized in Table 1-2, which inevitably oversimplifies complex state laws and
regulations. Note that, at the time of this writing, all but one of the fifty states had boiler
laws (ASME B&PV Section I), and several states had pressure vessel laws (ASME
B&PV VIII). Generally, these laws do not apply to federal facilities, where the
responsible federal department imposes its own vessels and pressure safety requirements.
For example, the U.S. Department of Energy requires compliance with the ASME Codes
(B31 and B&PV) through a U.S. Department of Energy Order.
State laws for boilers and pressure vessels are quite detailed. For simplicity, Table 1-2
lists the exceptions to code compliance permitted by state laws [API 910]. For example,
if “Vessels” is listed, this means that, in that state, pressure vessels do not need to comply
with Section VIII of the ASME B&PV code, while “<5 ft3” means that vessels smaller
than 5 ft3 do not have to comply with the ASME code. The actual state law should be
consulted for a complete and updated understanding of its scope.
Piping and pipeline engineering 18
Table 1-2 Simplified Summary of State Exclusions
of ASME I and ASME VIII
Alabama Law under consideration, 1999.
Alaska <15 psi not in place of public assembly
<5 ft3
Arizona Indian reservations
Vessels
Arkansas Water heater <200,000 BTU/hr
Air <12 gal or 150 psig
<15 psig and 5 ft3 and 6” ID
California Air tanks <150 psi and 1.5 ft3 (must have relief valve)
Colorado Waiver of rules for PV on remote sites (variance request)
Connecticut Vessels
Delaware No exception
Florida No exception
Georgia <5 ft3 and <250 psig
<1.5 ft3 and 600 psig
water <300 psi or <210°F
water <200,000 BTU/hr or <210°F or <120 gal; with relief
“Most” research vessels
Vessel used in generation of electricity or in public utilities
Vessel used to generate steam; with owner-user program
Hawaii Liquids <120 gal
<5 ft3 and <250 psig
<1.5 ft3 and 600 psig
cold water storage
Idaho Water <120 gal
<5 ft3 and <250 psig
<1.5 ft3 and 600 psig
<120 gal+200F+200,000 BTU/hr and 160 psi
Illinois Cities >500,000 pop.
Water <180F
Farms for agricultural purposes
<5 ft3 and 250 psig
<1.5 ft3
<15 ft3 and <250 psig not in place of public assembly
Indiana Water <180F <5 ft3 (prior 1971)
<15 ft3 not in place of public assembly (prior 1971)
<5 ft3 with 250 psi RV (post 1971)
<15 ft3 with 300 psi RV not in public place (post 1971)
<1.5 ft3
Codes, standards and practices 19
Iowa Vessels, except steam
Kansas Vessels
Kentucky Refineries
Louisiana Vessels
Maine No exception
Maryland No exception
Massachusetts Vessels other than air tanks, reinf. plastic, refrigerant.
Michigan Vessels
Minnesota <5 ft3 with 100 psig RV
water <120 gal
Farms
Refineries
<5 ft3 steam laundry pressing
Non-hazardous liquids <140F or 200 psi
Mississippi <5 ft3 and <250 psig
<1.5 ft3 and <600 psig
<120 gal
Well head site
Missouri <15 ft3 and <250 psi not in place of public assembly
<5 ft3 and <250 psi in public place
<1.5 ft3
Water <120 gal
Water <120F and <150 psig and non-hazardous
Non-explosive
Farms
Steam coil vapor cleaners <6 gal and <350F and RV
Montana Vessels
Nebraska Vessels
Nevada <120 gal
<5 ft3 and <250 psig
<1.5 ft3 and <600 psig
New Hampshire <5 ft3 and <250 psig
<1.5 ft3 and <3000 psig
Water <125 psig
Domestic water
New Jersey No exception
New Mexico Vessels
New York No exception
North Carolina Drilling gas and other products
Agricultural use
<5 ft3 and <250 psig
Piping and pipeline engineering 20
<1.5 ft3 and <600 psig
Water <120 gal, at ambient temperature
Water <110F
Construction req’ts do not apply to certain PV pre’81
North Dakota Water <200,000 BTU/hr and <160 psi and <250F
Portable steam cleaner
Ohio No exception
Ohio “Pressure Piping Systems Code”
Oklahoma Water <120 gal
Remote gas or oil production
Research vessels
Hot water supply heaters
Oregon <5 ft3 with 150 psi RV
Water <120 gal
Pennsylvania No exception
Puerto Rico No exception
Rhode Island Remote oil or gas production
South Carolina Law under consideration.
South Dakota Vessels
Tennessee <5 ft3
Water <200,000 BTU/hr and 210°F
Texas Vessels
Utah No exception
Vermont No exception
Virginia No exception
Washington <5 ft3
West Virginia Pr. Vessels
Wisconsin No exception
Wyoming “Certain exceptions” (refers to regulations)
1.7 ASME COUNCIL ON CODES AND STANDARDS
The activities leading to the development of the ASME codes and standards take place
within the framework of the ASME Council on Codes and Standards. The council is
comprised of several boards:
The Board on Pressure Technology
B16 Standardization of Valves, Flanges, Fittings and Gaskets.
Codes, standards and practices 21
B31 Code for Pressure Piping.
Boilers and Pressure Vessels.
Post Construction.
The Board on Nuclear Codes and Standards
Boilers and Pressure Vessels (Nuclear).
Nuclear Air and Gas Treatment Equipment.
Cranes for Nuclear Facilities.
Nuclear Quality Assurance.
Operation and Maintenance of Nuclear Power Plants.
Qualification of Mechanical Equipment.
The Board on Safety Codes and Standards
Elevators and Escalators.
Manlifts.
Compressor Systems.
Cranes, Derricks, Hoists.
Automotive Lifting Devices.
The Board on Standardization
Plumbing Materials and Equipment.
Screw Threads.
Standardization of Bolts, Nuts, Rivets and Screws.
Surface Qualities.
Practice for Preparation of Graphs and Charts.
The Board on Accreditation, Registration, and Certification
Authorized Inspection Agencies.
Boilers and Pressure Vessels.
ISO 9000 Registration.
Pressure Relief Device Laboratories.
Qualification of Elevator Inspectors.
The Board on Performance Test Codes
Steam Turbines.
Piping and pipeline engineering 22
Pumps.
Fans.
Pressure and Flow Measurement.
Steam Traps.
1.8 ASME B16 STANDARDS
Sectional Committee B16 was created in 1921 to unify national standards for pipe flanges
and fittings, and to facilitate the procurement, assembly and replacement of plumbing and
industrial pipefittings. This scope later expanded to cover valves and gaskets, and
currently includes the following standards:
B16.1 Cast iron pipe flanges and flanged fittings
B16.3 Malleable iron threaded fittings
B16.4 Cast iron threaded fittings
B16.5 Pipe flanges and flanged fittings, NPS ½ through NPS 24
B16.9 Factory-made wrought steel butt welding fittings
B16.10 Face-to-face and end-to-end dimensions of valves
B16.11 Socket-welding and threaded forged steel fittings
B16.12 Cast iron threaded drainage fittings
B16.14 Ferrous pipe plugs, bushings and locknuts with pipe threads
B16.15 Cast bronze threaded fittings classes 125 and 250
B16.20 Metallic gaskets for pipe flanges—ring joint, spiral-wound, and jacketed
B16.21 Nonmetallic flat gaskets for pipe flanges
B16.22 Wrought copper and copper alloy solder joint pressure fittings
B16.23 Cast copper alloy solder joint drainage fittings
B16.24 Cast copper alloy pipe flanges and flanged fittings: Class 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, and
2500
B16.25 Buttwelding ends
B16.26 Cast copper alloy fittings for flared copper tubes
B16.28 Wrought steel buttwelding short radius elbows and returns
B16.29 Wrought copper and wrought copper alloy solder joint drainage fittings—DWW
B16.32 Cast copper alloy joint fittings for solvent drainage systems
B16.33 Manually operated metallic gas valves for use in gas piping systems up to 125 psig, sizes
½ through 2
B16.34 Valves—flanged, threaded and welding end
Codes, standards and practices 23
B16.36 Orifice flanges
B16.38 Large metallic valves for gas distribution, manually operated, NSP-2 ½ to 12, 125 psig
maximum
B16.39 Malleable iron threaded pipe unions, classes 150, 250, and 300
B16.40 Manually operated thermoplastic gas shutoffs and valves in gas distribution system
B16.41 Functional qualification requirements for power operated active valve assemblies for
nuclear power plants
B16.42 Ductile iron pipe flanges and flanged fittings classes 150 and 300
B16.43 Wrought copper and copper alloy solder joint fittings for solvent drainage systems
B16.44 Manually operated metallic gas valves for use in house piping systems
B16.45 Cast iron fittings for solvent drainage systems
B16.47 Large diameter steel flanges NPS 26–60
B16.48 Steel line blanks
1.9 API STANDARDS AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
The American Petroleum Institute publishes codes, standards, studies and recommended
practices related to piping, tanks, vessels, equipment and systems used in the petroleum
industry. In addition to design and fabrication rules, the API documents address
maintenance, in-service inspections, evaluation of component degradation, also referred
to as “fitness-for-service” or “fitness-for-purpose”, and repairs. Even though these
documents are developed for use in the petroleum industry, there are many API standards
relevant to the chemical process industry in general. API refining documents related to
pressure equipment include:
510 Pressure Vessel Inspection Code: Maintenance, Inspection, Rating, Repair, and Alteration.
530 Fired Heater Tubes.
570 Piping Inspection Code: Inspection, Repair, Alterations, and Rerating of In-Service Piping
Systems.
571 Conditions Causing Failure.
572 Inspection of Pressure Vessels.
573 Inspection of Fired Boilers and Heaters.
574 Inspection of Piping, Tubing, Valves, and Fittings.
575 Inspection of Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks.
576 Inspection of Pressure Relieving Devices.
577 Welding Inspections.
578 Material Verification Program for New and Existing Alloy Piping Systems.
Piping and pipeline engineering 24
579 Fitness-for-Service.
581 Base Resource Document—Risk Based Inspection.
582 Recommended Practice and Supplementary Welding Guidelines for the Chemical, Oil, and
Gas Industries.
598 Valve Inspection and Test.
610 Centrifugal Pumps for Petroleum, Heavy Duty Chemical and Gas
Industry Services.
611 General Purpose Steam Turbines for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services.
612 Special Purpose Steam Turbines for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services.
613 Special Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services.
617 Centrifugal Compressors for Petroleum and Gas Industry.
618 Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services.
619 Rotary-Type Positive Displacement Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry
Services.
620 Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low Pressure Storage Tanks.
650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage.
651 Cathodic Protection of Above Ground Storage Tanks.
652 Lining of Above Ground Petroleum Storage Tanks.
653 Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction Code.
674 Positive Displacement Pumps—Reciprocating.
675 Positive Displacement Pumps—Controlled Volume.
676 Positive Displacement Pumps—Rotary.
686 Machinery Installation and Installation Design
751 HF Acid.
850 API Standards 620, 650 and 653 Interpretations.
920 Prevention of Brittle Fracture of Pressure Vessels.
937 Evaluating Design Criteria for Storage Tanks with Frangible Roof Joints.
941 Steels for Hydrogen Service at Elevated Temperatures and Pressures in Petroleum Refineries
and Petrochemical Plants.
945 Avoiding Environmental Cracking in Amine Units.
1107 Pipe Line Maintenance Welding.
2510 Design and Construction of LPG Installations.
API valve publications include:
Codes, standards and practices 25
589 Fire Test for Evaluation of Valve Stem Packing.
591 User Acceptance of Refinery Valves.
594 Wafer Check Valves.
595 Cast Iron Gate Valves.
598 Valve Inspection and Testing.
599 Metal Plug Valves—Flanged and Welding Ends.
600 Steel Gate Valves, Flanged and Butt Welding Ends.
602 Compact Steel Gate Valves.
603 Class 150 Cast Corrosion Resistant Flanged End gate Valves.
604 Ductile Iron Gate Valves, Flanged Ends.
606 Compact Steel Gate Valve, Extended Body.
607 Fire Test for Soft Seat Quarter Turn Valves.
608 Metal Ball Valves, Flanged and Butt Welding Ends.
609 Butterfly Valves Lug Type and Wafer Type.
API pipeline transportation publications include:
5L Specification for Line Pipe.
5L1 Railroad Transportation of Line Pipe.
6D Specification for Pipeline Valves.
10E Application of Cement Lining to Steel Tubular Goods, Handling, Installation, and Joining.
15HR Specification for High Pressure Fiberglass Line Pipe.
15LE Specification for Polyethylene Line Pipe.
15LP Specification for Thermoplastic Line Pipe.
15LR Specification for Low Pressure Fiberglass Line Pipe.
15L4 RP Care and Use of Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Line Pipe.
1102 Steel Pipelines Crossing Railroads and Highways.
1104 Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities.
1109 Marking Liquid Petroleum Pipeline Facilities.
1110 Pressure Testing of Liquid Petroleum Pipelines.
1111 Design, Construction, Operation, and Maintenance of Offshore Hydrocarbon Pipeline and
Risers.
1113 Developing a Pipeline Supervisory Control Center.
1114 Design of Solution-Minded Underground Storage Facilities.
Piping and pipeline engineering 26
1115 Operation of Solution-Minded Underground Facilities.
1117 Movement of In-Service Pipelines.
1123 Development of Public Awareness Programs by Hazardous Liquid Pipeline Operators.
1130 Computational Pipeline Monitoring.
1132 Effects of Oxygenated Fuels and Reformulated Diesel Fuels on Elastomers and Polymers in
Pipeline/Terminal Component.
1149 Pipeline Variable Uncertainties and Their Effects on Leak Detectability.
1155 Evaluation Methodology of Software Based Leak Detection Systems.
1156 Effects of Smooth and Rock Dents on Liquid Petroleum Pipelines.
1157 Hydrostatic Test Water Treatment and Disposal Operations for Liquid Pipeline Systems.
1158 Analysis of DOT Reportable Incidents for Hazardous Liquid Pipelines, 1986 Through 1996.
1160 Managing System Integrity for Hazardous Liquid Pipelines.
1161 Guidance Document for the Qualification of Liquid Pipeline Per
sonnel.
2200 Repairing Crude Oil, Liquefied Petroleum Gas and Product Pipelines.
API overpressure protection publications include:
11V7 Repair, Testing, and Setting Gas Lift Valves.
520 Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure Relieving Devices in Refineries.
521 Guide for Pressure Relieving and Depressurizing Systems.
526 Flanged Steel Safety Relief Valves.
527 Seat Tightness of Pressure Relief Valves with Metal-to-Metal Seats.
2000 Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks. Non-Refrigerated and Refrigerated.
1.10 MANUFACTURERS STANDARDIZATION SOCIETY
The Manufacturer’s Standardization Society (MSS) of the Valve and Fittings Industry
has developed several standards related to the fabrication of pipe, fittings, valves and pipe
supports. These include:
SP-6 Standard finishes of contact faces of pipe flanges and connecting end flanges of valves and
fittings.
SP-9 Spot facing for bronze, iron, and steel flanges.
SP-
25
Standard marking system for valves, fittings, flanges, and unions.
SP- Class 150 corrosion resistance gate, globe, angle, and check valves with flanged and butt-
Codes, standards and practices 27
42 weld ends.
SP-
43
Wrought stainless steel butt-welding fittings.
SP-
44
Steel pipeline flanges.
SP-
45
By-pass and drain connections.
SP-
51
Class 150LW corrosion resistant cast flanges and flanged fittings.
SP-
53
Quality standards for steel casting and forgings for valves, flanges, and fittings and other
piping components, magnetic particle examinati